Pleco 2.2 Instruction Manual : Tuttle Learner's Chinese-English Dictionary
Li Dong 李冬
Copyright © 2005 Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd. All rights reserved.
1.1 The Pinyin Romanization System
The pronunciation of Chinese words is transcribed in this dictionary using the pinyin transliteration system, the official, internationally recognized Chinese romanization system.Every Chinese character in this dictionary is accompanied by its pinyin spelling so users will know how it is pronounced.
Pronouncing Chinese syllables normally involves three elements: vowels, consonants and tones. Modern standard Chinese, known as Putonghua, uses about 419 syllables without tones and 1,332 syllables with tones.
1.2 Vowels
1.2.1 Single Vowels
There are seven basic single vowels:
a similar to a in ah
e similar to a in ago
ě similar to e in ebb (this sound never occurs alone and is transcribed as e, as in ei, ie, ue)
i similar to ee in cheese (spelled y when not preceded by a consonant)
o similar to oe in toe
u similar to oo in boot (spelled w when not preceded by a consonant)
ū similar to German ū in ūber or French u in tu; or you can also get ū by saying i and rounding your lips at the same time (spelled u after j, q, x; spelled yu when not preceded by a consonant)
1.2.2 Vowel Combinations
These single vowels enter into combinations with each other or the consonants of n or ng to form what are technically known as diphthongs. These combinations are pronounced as a single sound, with a little more emphasis on the first part of the sound.
You can learn these combinations in four groups:
Group 1: diphthongs starting with a/e/ě
ai similar to y in my
ao similar to ow in how
an
ang
en
eng
ei similar to ay in may
Group 2: diphthongs starting with i
ia
ie similar to ye in yes
iao
iou similar to you (spelled iu when preceded by a consonant)
ian
ien similar to in (spelled in when preceded by a consonant)
ieng similar to En in English (spelled ing when preceded by a consonant)
iang similar to young
iong
Group 3: diphthongs starting with u/o
ua
uo
uai similar to why in British English
uei similar to way (spelled ui when preceded by a consonant)
uan
uen (spelled un when preceded by a consonant)
ueng
uang
ong
Group 4: diphthongs starting with ū
ūe used only after j, q, x; spelled ue
ūen used only after j, q, x; spelled un
ūan used only after j, q, x; spelled uan
1.3 Consonants
Consonants may be grouped in the following ways.
Group 1: These consonants are almost the same in Chinese and English.
Chinese English
m m
n n
f f
l l
s s
r r
b pronounced as hard p (as in speak)
p p (as in peak)
g pronounced as hard k (as in ski)
k k (as in key)
d pronounced as hard t (as in star)
t t (as in tar)
Group 2: Some modification is needed to get these Chinese sounds from English.
Chinese English
j as j in jeep (but unvoiced, not round-lipped)
q as ch in cheese (but not round-lipped)
x as sh in sheep (but not round-lipped)
c as ts as in cats (make it long)
z as ds as in beds (but unvoiced, and make it long)
Group 3: No English counterparts
Chinese zh, ch, and sh have no English counterparts. You can learn to say zh, ch and sh starting from z, c and s. For example, say s (which is almost the same as the English s in sesame) and then roll up your tongue to touch the roof of your mouth. You get sh.
1.4 Tones
Chinese is a tonal language, i.e. a sound pronounced in different tones is understood as different words. So the tone is an indispensable component of the pronunciation of a word.
1.4.1 Basic Tones
There are four basic tones. The following five-level pitch graph shows the values of the four tones:
The First Tone is a high, level tone and is represented as ¯, e.g. 妈 mā (meaning mother, mom).
The Second Tone is a high, rising tone and is represented by the tone mark＇, e.g. 麻 má (hemp or sesame).
The Third Tone is a falling and rising tone. As you can see from the pitch graph it falls from below the middle of the voice range to nearly the bottom and then rises to a point near the top. It is represented by the tone mark ˇ, e.g. 马 mǎ (horse).
The Fourth Tone is a falling tone. It falls from high to low and is represented by the tone mark｀, e.g. 骂 mà (curse).
In Chinese speech, as in English speech, some sounds are unstressed, i.e. pronounced short and soft. They do not have any of the four tones. Such sounds are said to have Neutral Tone. Sounds with the neutral tone are not marked. For example in 爸爸 bàba (daddy) the first syllable is pronounced in the fourth tone and the second syllable in the neutral tone, i.e. unstressed.
1.4.2 Tone Changes
Tones may undergo changes in actual speech (“tone sandhi”). The third tone, when followed by a first, second, fourth or neutral tone sound, loses its final rise and stops at the low pitch. Followed by another third tone sound, it becomes the second tone. This is a general rule and the notation of third tone sounds remains unchanged.
For example, in 所以 suǒyǐ (therefore, so), notation remains the third tone for both syllables, but the word is actually pronounced like suóyǐ.
Two important words 不 bù (no)and 一 yī (one) also undergo tone changes. You will find the details of their tone changes under these entries.
1.5 Syllables
1.5.1 Chinese Syllables: Distinct Units
Normally a consonant and a vowel merge to form a syllable in Chinese. Every syllable is a distinct unit in speech. Learners should say each syllable clearly and give full value to most syllables in speech. The general impression of Chinese speech, described in musical terms, is staccato rather than legato (which could be used to describe English).
1.5.2 Syllable Division Mark
As Chinese syllables are distinct units and should not be liaised with preceding or following syllables, a syllable division mark (’) is sometimes used to avoid confusion, e.g. shí’èr, píng’ān, tiān’é.
2.1 Words in this Dictionary
This dictionary gives detailed description of the 3,000-odd words prescribed for Level A and Level B of the Chinese government-sponsored, internationally-recognized Chinese Language Proficiency Test (汉语水平考试 Hànyǔ Shuǐpíng Kǎoshì, HSK). About a hundred words are added to reflect changing Chinese life, among which are:
手机 shǒujī (mobile phone), 短信 duǎnxìn (text message), 光碟 guāngdié (CD), 英特网 yīngtèwǎng (Internet), 网站 wǎngzhàn (Web site), 网吧 wǎngbā (Internet café), 信息 xìnxī (information), 资金 zījīn (fund), 财产 cáicǎn (property), 股票 gǔpiào (share, stock), 开发 kāifā (develop), 交税 jiāoshuì (pay taxes), 董事长 dǒngshìzhǎng (chairman of board of trustees)
A major feature of this dictionary is that it is self-contained, i.e. the words used to make the thousands of sample sentences are also found as headwords in the dictionary. In other words, if you do not know a word used in the dictionary, you can always find it explained somewhere within the dictionary.
2.2 Word-formation
Like German, Chinese words are very transparent; that is, the way a word is formed tells you a lot about its meaning. Therefore it is very helpful to know the meanings of the components in a word and the way the word is formed, and it also makes understanding the word easier and more interesting.
This dictionary analyzes word-formation methods of headwords, whenever it is practical to do so. We recognize six methods of word-formation.
Compounding (shortened to “compound”): the components of a word are complementary to each other in meaning and are of the same status. For example:
chóngfù 重复 [compound: 重 once again + 复 repeat] verb = repeat
Modification (“modif”): one component modifies the other. For example:
wàiguó 外国 [modif: 外 outside + 国 country] noun = foreign country
Verb+object (“v+obj”): the word has a verb-and-object relationship. For example:
fāshāo 发燒 [v+obj: 发 develop + 燒 burning, fever] verb= run a fever
Verb+complementation (“v+comp”): the word has a verb-and-complement relationship, that is, the first component is a verb and the second one modifies it. For example:
tígāo 提高 [v+comp: 提 raise +高 high] verb = raise, advance
Suffixation (“suffix”): the word contains a suffix. For example:
běnzi 本子 [suffix: 本 a book + 子 nominal suffix] noun = notebook
Idioms (“idiom”): the word is an idiomatic expression. For example:
mǎshàng 马上 [idiom] adverb = at once, immediately
2.3 Definitions
In most cases English equivalents or near equivalents are given as definitions. For example:
gāoxìng 高兴adjective =joyful, delighted, willing
For grammatical words that have no English equivalents, concise explanations are given in brackets. For example:
de 的 particle = (attached to a word, phrase or clause to indicate that it is an attribute; 的 de is normally followed by a noun)
After the definition of a noun, the specific measure word used with the noun is shown, if it is one of headwords in the dictionary. For example:
shū 书 Trad 書noun = book (本 běn)
When the specific measure word is not within the scope of this dictionary and therefore is not shown, you can often use the default measure word 个 ge.
Antonyms are shown after the definition of most adjectives and some nouns, if they are headwords of this dictionary. For example:
duǎn 短 adjective = (of length, time)short (antonym 长cháng)
When a headword has more than one meaning, the different meanings are indicated by 1, 2, etc. For example:
yuè 月noun
1 = month
…
2 =the moon
…
Homonyms (words pronounced and written the same but with different, unrelated meanings) are treated as separate words, e.g.
dài 代 1 verb = take the place of, perform on behalf of
…dài 代 2 noun
1 = generation
…
2= dynasty
…
2.4 Collocations
Certain words are habitually juxtaposed with each other. Such juxtapositions are called collocations. This dictionary shows approximately 2,000 common collocations, with clear definitions and necessary example sentences. For example:
bāo 包 noun = parcel, bag
...
qiánbāo 钱包 = wallet, purse
shūbāo 书包 = schoolbag
yóubāo 邮包 = mailbag, parcel for posting
The result is that this dictionary introduces you to many more words than the headwords, all learnt conveniently. In this way your word power will be significantly increased.
2.5 Sample Sentences
Words become really meaningful only when used in sentences. That is why this dictionary supplies a number of sample sentences for almost every headword. All the sentences are carefully constructed to be (1) idiomatic, (2) communicatively useful and (3) within the controlled vocabulary of this dictionary.
Studying the sentences carefully will help you learn how to use important Chinese words in everyday communication. Care was taken to include sentences that are good examples of how words behave in communication.
For example:
bàozhǐ 报纸 [modif: 报 reporting + 纸 paper] NOUN = newspaper (张 zhāng, 份 fèn)
■ 今天报纸上有什么重要消息？ Jīntiān bàozhǐ shang yǒu shénme zhòngyào xiāoxi? =What important news is there in today’s paper?
■ 我很少看报纸。 Wǒ hén shǎo kàn bàozhǐ. =I seldom read newspapers.
■ 这份报纸广告比新闻多。 Zhè fèn bàozhǐ guǎnggào bǐ xīnwén duō. =There are more advertisements than news in this newspaper.
Three sample sentences are given for the headword 报纸 bàozhǐ. In the first one
■ 今天报纸上有什么重要消息？ Jīntiān bàozhǐ shang yǒu shénme zhòngyào xiāoxi? =What important news is there in today’s paper?
the headword 报纸 bàozhǐ is used in the subject position and is collocated with the preposition 上 shàng.
In the second one
■ 我很少看报纸。 Wǒ hén shǎo kàn bàozhǐ. =I seldom read newspapers.
报纸 bàozhǐ functions as an object after the common verb 看 kàn.
Another example is the entry of 办法 bànfǎ. As many as five sample sentences are provided, encompassing almost all situations in everyday communication. If you understand and learn the sentences, you will be able to use 办法 bànfǎ with ease and confidence. All sample sentences in this dictionary are accompanied by its pinyin and English translation to aid learning.
In some cases a second translation is provided in brackets to aid comprehension and idiomatic expression. —> indicates a freer, more idiomatic translation and <—, a more literal translation. For example:
ràng 让
…
你应该让那辆车先行。 Nǐ yīnggāi ràng nà liàng chē xiānxíng. =You should let that vehicle go first. (—> You should give way to that vehicle.)
3.1 Main Features of Chinese Grammar
3.1.1 Topic+Comment Structure
The basic principle in making Chinese sentences is to follow the “topic+comment” structure. “Topic” means the subject matter you want to talk about, and “comment” is the information you give about the subject matter. To make a Chinese sentence, you simply first mention the subject matter you want to talk about, and then say what you have to say about it. For example, you can say 那本书 nà běn shū (that book) first as the “topic” and then add “comment”:
■ 那本书 很有意思。 Nà běn shū hěn yǒu yìshi.= That book is very interesting.
■ 那本书 卖完了。 Nà běn shū mài wán le.= That book has been sold.
■ 那本书 你有吗？ Nà běn shū nǐ yǒu mā?= Do you have that book?
■ 那本书 语言很优美。 Nà běn shū yǔyán hěn yōuměi.= The language of that book is beautiful.
3.1.2 Ellipsis of Sentence Elements
Chinese speakers may leave out words that are supposed to be understood, and therefore need not be spoken. Subjects and conjunctions are often omitted. For example, you may translate the English sentence If you like it, you may buy it, but if you don’t like it, you don’t have to. into the Chinese sentence 喜欢就买，不喜欢就别买。 Xǐhuān jiù mǎi, bù xǐhuān jiù bié mǎi. Compare the two sentences, and you will find that some English words, such as if, you, it, and but are not translated.
3.1.3 Word Classes: Flexibility, No Inflection
Chinese words do not have inflections, i.e. they do not change to indicate grammatical categories. For example, the verb 去 qù (to go) is invariably 去 qù; there is no past form or any other inflected form of this verb. Neither do Chinese words normally have formal markers of word class. Consequently it is rather easy for a word to be used in more than one word class. This relative flexibility in word classes, however, does not mean that Chinese does not have word classes (see Section 4.2).
3.1.4 Measure Words and Particles
Measure words (量词 liàngcí) and particles (助词 zhùcí) are two word classes found in Chinese but not in English and most other languages.
Measure words are usually required when a noun is modified by a numeral. For example, 两书 liǎng shūis unacceptable; you must use the measure word 本 běn between the numeral and the noun: 两本书 liǎng běn shū (two books). Furthermore, Chinese nouns require specific measure words to go with them. For example, the noun 书 shū (book) must be used with the measure word 本 běn.
In Chinese grammar, particles are words attached to other words or at the end of a sentence to indicate grammatical concepts or to express emotions. For example, the particles 了 le, 着 zhe, 过 guo are attached to verbs to indicate, respectively, whether the actions denoted are completed, in progress or past experiences.
3.2 Word Classes
Following are brief explanations of the basic terms in Chinese grammar used in this dictionary. (A word of warning: it is a rather complicated matter to define grammatical terms accurately. Here we will be content with some very general but useful ideas.)
| adjective | a describing word, a word that describes people, things or actions, typically used before a noun. |
| adverb | a word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. |
| conjunction | a word used to link two words, phrases or sentences, indicating certain relationships between them. |
| idiom | a set phrase, the meaning of which cannot be readily derived from its components. |
| interjection | a word that expresses strong emotions. |
| measure word | a word that connects a numeral to a noun. Measure words are a special feature of Chinese; a list of measure words is included in the Appendices. |
| modal verb | a word used before a verb to indicate necessity, possibility, willingness, etc. |
| noun | a naming word, a word that names people, animals, plants, things, ideas, etc. |
| numeral | a word that represents a number, typically used with a noun. |
| onomatopoeia | a word that imitates the sounds of a thing or an action. |
| particle | a word used with another word, phrase, or sentence to indicate certain grammatical meanings or to express strong emotions. |
| preposition | a word used before a noun or pronoun to indicate time, place, direction, manner, reason of an action, etc. |
| pronoun | a word that is used in the place of a noun, a verb, an adjective, etc. |
| verb | an action word, a word that indicates what somebody does or feels. |
3.3 Other Grammar Terms
| attribute | the element that modifies the subject or object of a sentence; or, in word-formation analysis, a word that modifies a noun. |
| adverbial | the element that is used before the predicate of a sentence and modifies it; or, in word-formation analysis, a word that precedes a verb or adjective to modify it. |
| complement | the element that is used after the predicate of a sentence and modifies it; or, in word-formation analysis, a word that follows a verb or adjective to modify it. |
| imperative sentence | a command or a request. |
| object | the element that follows a predicative verb, typically to indicate the target of an action. |
| predicate | the comment or information about the subject, typically a verb or adjective. |
| prefix | an additional element that immediately precedes the word it is attached to. |
| subject | the topic of a sentence, what the speaker wants to talk about, typically a noun or pronoun. |
| suffix | an additional element that closely follows the word it is attached to. |
Essential information on cultural context, pronunciation, grammar and usage is given to help you use the language in a socially acceptable and idiomatic way. For example:
Hànyǔ 汉语
…
note: In Chinese there are a number of words denoting “the Chinese language.” 汉语 Hànyǔ literally means the language of the Han Chinese people, in contrast with the languages of the non-Han peoples in China. 汉语 Hànyǔ is therefore the accurate, scientific term for the language. However, the most popular term for the Chinese language is 中文 Zhōngwén. In Singapore and other Southeast Asian countries, the standard Chinese language is often referred to as 华语 Huáyǔ in contrast to the various Chinese dialects spoken there. Also see note on 普通话 Pǔtōnghuà.hěn 很
…
note: When used as predicates, Chinese adjectives normally require an adverb. For example, 我高兴Wǒ gāoxìng sounds unnatural, while 我很高兴 Wǒ hěn gāoxìng(I’m [very] happy), 我不高兴Wǒ bù gāoxìng(I’m not happy) or 我非常高兴 Wǒ fēicháng gāoxìng (I’m very happy) are normal sentences. The adverb 很 hěn is often used as a default adverb before an adjective. In such cases the meaning of 很 hěn is very weak.
Return to Table of Contents